Anonymous Functions/Operators/Hyperators
Anonymous functions and operators are a one-line grouping of one or more statements all enclosed in braces such as {(+⌿⍵)÷≢⍵}. This syntax is useful for one-line functions and operators to complement the existing definition types of user-defined: ∇ Z←avg R, trains: (+⌿ ÷ ≢), and derived: ,∘⍋∘⍋∘,.
These objects may be named as in avg←{(+⌿⍵)÷≢⍵}, and they may be used in place of any APL function (primitive, operator operand, derived, train, user-defined) including within another anonymous function/operator.
Normally, the statements within the braces execute one by one from left to right, just as in execute. Execution of the anonymous function/operator terminates on the first occurrence of one of the following:
Function Arguments
To define an anonymous function, use ⍺ as the (optional) left argument, ∇ as the name of the anonymous function (for recursion), and ⍵ as the name of the right argument. For example,
3{√+/⍺ ⍵*2}4 ⍝ Pythagorean theorem
5
{s←(+/⍵)÷2 ⋄ √×/s-0,⍵}3 4 5 ⍝ Heron's formula for triangle area
6
Operator Operands
To define an anonymous operator, use the above special names along with ⍺⍺ as the name of the left operand, ∇∇ as the name of the operator (for recursion), and ⍵⍵ as the name of the right operand. If neither ⍺⍺ nor ⍵⍵ appears as a token (outside of character constants) between the braces, then the object is a function, not an operator. For example,
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f←{∘.⍺⍺⍨⍳⍵} |
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=f 4 |
⌈f 4 |
*f 4 |
≤f 4 |
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Ambivalent Anonymous Functions/Operators
User-defined functions allow you to specify in their headers that the left argument is optional as in ∇ Z←{L} foo R. This behavior is also available to anonymous functions/operators by including a statement that assigns a value to ⍺. If ⍺ does not have a value when that statement is encountered, the statement is executed; otherwise, that entire statement is ignored including any side effects. This behavior obviates using 0=⎕NC '⍺' to test for a value in ⍺.
For example,
f←{⍺←2 ⋄ ⍺√⍵}
f 16
4
3 f 27
3
f←{⎕←⍺←⍵ ⋄ (⍳⍺)∘.⍺⍺⍳⍵}
⌊f 4
4
1 1 1 1
1 2 2 2
1 2 3 3
1 2 3 4
3⌊f 4
1 1 1 1
1 2 2 2
1 2 3 3
As a consequence of this rule, regardless of whether the anonymous function is called monadically or dyadically, any second or subsequent statements that assign a value to ⍺ are always ignored.
Valences
An anonymous function/operator may be
- ambivalent (may be called with one or two arguments)
- dyadic (must be called with two arguments)
- monadic (must be called with one argument only) or
- niladic (must be called with no arguments)
depending upon which of the special symbols are present in its definition.
Disregarding special symbols inside of character constants
- For anonymous functions (and operators):
- if ⍺← appears as a sequence of tokens, then the object is an ambivalent (derived) function
- otherwise, if ⍺ appears as a token, the object is a dyadic (derived) function
- otherwise, if ⍵ appears as a token, the object is a monadic (derived) function
- otherwise, if neither ⍺ nor ⍵ appears as a token, the object is a niladic (derived) function.
- For anonymous operators:
- if ⍵⍵ appears as a token, the operator is dyadic
- otherwise, it is monadic.
For example,
{⍵}2
2
1{⍵}2
VALENCE ERROR
1{⍵}2
^
1{⍺+⍵}2
3
{⍺+⍵}2
VALENCE ERROR
{⍺+⍵}2
∧
{⍺←2 ⋄ ⍺+⍵}2
4
3{⍺←2 ⋄ ⍺+⍵}2
5
{⍳3}
1 2 3
Guards
Guards are used to test for a condition and execute a statement or not depending upon the value of the conditional expression. This behavior is identical to the control structure :if Cond ⋄ :then CondStmt ⋄ :return ⋄ :end.
Guards appear as an APL expression followed by a colon, followed by a single APL statement as in
{... ⋄ Cond:CondStmt ⋄ ....}
which executes CondStmt and terminates the anonymous function/operator iff and only if Cond is TRUE.
For example,
{... ⋄ 0∊⍴⍵:'empty right argument' ⋄ ....}
As many guard statements may appear in an anonymous function/operator as desired. They are evaluated in turn until one of them is TRUE, at which time the statement following the colon is executed and the function terminates with the result of that conditional statement as the result of the anonymous function/operator.
If Cond does not evaluate to a Boolean-valued singleton, a DOMAIN ERROR is signalled.
Shy Results
A "shy" result is any result that doesn't automatically display its value, a simple example of which is L←⍳3: the result is ⍳3 (as evidenced by the extension to 3+L←⍳3), but because it has been assigned to a name, the result doesn't automatically display. Other ways to create a shy result is to use the Sink syntax ←⍳3, or to declare in the header of a user-defined function that the result is always shy as in ∇ {Z}←foo R.
A shy result is inherited up the chain of results such as through the Execute primitive. That is, if the last statement executed has a shy result, the result of execute is shy, too.
Typically ⎕← is used to expose a shy result.
Anonymous functions/operators also may have shy results by virtue of the final result being assigned to a name (any name) before the anonymous function/operator returns. For example,
{L←⍳3}
⎕←{L←⍳3}
1 2 3
Ordinarily, a shy result doesn't terminate the anonymous function/operator. To force termination, precede the assignment with a guard as in
{⍵=0:←'Zero' ⋄ ⍵>0:←'Positive' ⋄ ←'Negative'} R
which terminates with a shy result in all three cases.
Scoping
Recursion
Restrictions
- Anonymous functions/operators may not assign anything to any of the special names (∇, ⍵, ⍺⍺, ∇∇, ⍵⍵) except for ⍺. Any attempt to do so signals a SYNTAX ERROR.
- For the moment, anonymous functions/operators may be written on one line only.
- As a consequence of the above one-line restriction, anonymous functions/operators may not contain comments.
- None of the special names may be erased, via ⎕EX or otherwise.
- Goto statements (including →, →0, and →⍬) are not allowed in anonymous functions/operators, and signal a SYNTAX ERROR.
- All variables to which an assignment is made are automatically localized to the anonymous function/operator, so (unlike user-defined functions) a direct assignment inside an anonymous function/operator cannot affect the value of a variable defined higher up in the execution chain unless it is made via a user-defined function or execute as in
L←⍳9 ⋄ ⎕←{L←"abc" ⋄ ⍵}23
23
L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
L←⍳9 ⋄ ⎕←{⍎'L←"abc"' ⋄ ⍵}23
23
L
abc
